Blood tests for crohn's disease (CD)

Crohn’s disease is an inflammatory bowel disease. It can affect gut from mouth to anus. It is also known as granulomatous enteritis. Diagnosis of crohn’s disease depends on endoscopic findings, radiological tests and blood tests.

Blood tests for crohn’s disease are a developing area in pathology. Blood tests of crohn’s disease patients help to diagnosis and to assess the response to treatment as well.

Basics blood tests for crohn’s disease are complete blood count, Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, or ESR, and C-reactive protein. Complete blood count in crohn’s disease may show low hemoglobin or anemia and high white blood cell count. This could either be caused by blood loss or by vitamin B12 deficiency. Anemia of crohn’s disease could either be microcytic, hypochromic or megaloblastic type. As crohn’s disease is an inflammatory condition Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, or ESR, and C-reactive protein can be high.

There is a set of blood tests for crohn’s disease and those blood tests are done to detect various antibodies. There are several antibodies found in blood of patients suffering from crohn’s disease. Common antibodies of crohn’s disease are anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies (ASCA), anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA), anti-laminaribioside [Glc(β1,3)Glb(β); ALCA], anti-chitobioside (GlcNAc(β1,4)GlcNAc(β); ACCA], anti-mannobioside [Man(α1,3)Man(α)AMCA], anti-Laminarin [Glc(β1,3))3n(Glc(β1,6))n; anti-L] and anti-Chitin [(GlcNAc(β1,4)n; anti-C]. These antibodies are associated with prognosis of crohn’s disease. The blood tests currently available for antibodies are pANCA, anti-ASCA, anti-OmpC, and anti-CBir1 flagelin antibodies. pANCA is the peripheral anti-nuclear antibody.

Treatment for allergic rhinitis

Treatment for allergic rhinitis consists of three components.

1. environmental control measures and allergen avoidance
2. pharmacological management
3. immunotherapy

Environmental control measures and allergen avoidance

This is very important to control the frequency of allergic rhinitis. This method should be considered when it is practical. Avoidance of pollens could be difficult but exposure to pollens during their seasons could be practical. Indoor allergens like house dust mites control are quite helpful. It is advisable to wash bed linen atleast every to weeks time in hot (at least 130°F) water to kill any mites present. Dust mites thrive when indoor humidity is above 50%, so dehumidification, air conditioning, or both is helpful. To avoid occupational allergens, it is advisable to wear masks during work.

Pharmacological management (medication)

1. antihistamine (preferably nonsedating) ; Cetirizine, Loratadine, desloratadine
2. Topical azelastine is a nasal spray antihistamine that effectively reduces sneezing, itching, and rhinorrhea
3. Nasal steroid sprays are highly efficacious in treating allergic rhinitis.
4. intranasal cromolyns

Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is considered in severe allergic rhinitis and when allergic rhinitis is associated with asthma and other respiratory diseases. This could be helpful in long run.

Causes for allergic rhinitis

Causes for allergic rhinitis are depending on the type of the allergic rhinitis; seasonal allergic rhinitis, perennial allergic rhinitis, sporadic/episodic allergic rhinitis and Occupational allergic rhinitis.

Causes for seasonal allergic rhinitis are seasonal pollens (tree, grass, and weed) and outdoor molds.

Common tree pollens causing seasonal allergic rhinitis are birch, oak, maple, cedar, olive, and elm. Tree pollens are common during spring. Kentucky bluegrass, orchard, redtop, timothy, vernal, meadow fescue, Bermuda, and perennial rye are the common grass pollens which cause seasonal allergic rhinitis. The grass pollens are most prominent from the late spring through the fall but can be present year-round in warmer climates. Common weeds associated with allergic rhinitis include short ragweed, western ragweed, pigweed, sage, mugwort, yellow dock, sheep sorrel, English plantain, lamb's quarters, and Russian thistle. Weed pollens are common during late summer.

Outdoor molds are also playing a big role in seasonal allergic rhinitis. Molds growth and dispersion depends on the atmospheric conditions. Alternaria and Cladosporium are particularly prevalent in the dry and windy conditions of the Great Plains states. Their dispersion often peaks on sunny afternoons. They are virtually absent when snow is on the ground in winter, and they peak in the summer months and early fall. Aspergillus and Penicillium can be found both outdoors and indoors.

Perennial allergic rhinitis is usually caused by the allergens found in home environment. But it can also be caused by the outdoor allergens as well. House dust mites are major allergens. Dermatophagoides farinae and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus is the commo house dust mite which can cause perennial allergic rhinitis. Pets (cat and dogs), cockroaches and rodents are also playing as culprits for perennial allergic rhinitis.

Sporadic allergic rhinitis is caused by intermittent exposure to allergens like pets, molds and pollens where as occupational allergic rhinitis is caused by exposure to allergens in the work place. Wood dust, latex (due to inhalation of powder from gloves), acid anhydrides, glues, and psyllium are the common occupational allergens.

Symptoms & signs of allergic rhinitis

Common symptoms of allergic rhinitis are sneezing, nasal congestion, nasal itching, and rhinorrhea. This condition has a seasonal variation as well. Usually it is a self limiting condition. Allergic rhinitis can exacerbate pre-existing asthma and it can be associated with otitis media, eustachian tube dysfunction, sinusitis, nasal polyps, allergic conjunctivitis, and atopic dermatitis. Allergic rhinitis may also contribute to learning difficulties, sleep disorders, and fatigue.

Types of allergic rhinitis

There are several types of allergic rhinitis depending on the type of allergens and the time of the year. Different Types of allergic rhinitis are as follow

• seasonal allergic rhinitis
• perennial allergic rhinitis
• sporadic/episodic allergic rhinitis
• Occupational allergic rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis types symptoms causes treatment

Allergic rhinitis can be defined as inflammation of nasal membranes. Synonyms for allergic rhinitis are rhinitis, nasal allergies, sneezing, nasal congestion, nasal itching and rhinorrhea (runny nose). Common symptoms of allergic rhinitis are sneezing, nasal congestion, nasal itching, and rhinorrhea. The eyes, ears, sinuses, and throat can also be involved. Allergic rhinitis is a very common condition. Allergic rhinitis is the commonest cause for rhinitis. Prevalence rate of allergic rhinitis in USA is 20% whereas international prevalence rate is 14%.



Types of allergic rhinitis
Symptoms of allergic rhinitis
Causes for allergic rhinitis
Treatment for allergic rhinitis

Biosensors; types uses applications

1. Biosensors
   
2. Types of biosensors
   
3. Piezoelectric biosensors
   
4. Thermometric biosensors
   
5. Amperometric biosensors
   
6. Optical biosensors
7. Electrochemical biosensors
   
8. Applications of biosensors
9. Biosensors in food analysis
   
10. Biosensors in food industry
    
11. Biosensors and forensic medicine
12. Biosensors in cancer detection
    

Types of biosensors

Biosensors are analytical devices and these are used in physics, chemistry and biology. Biosensors are used to analyze various physical, chemical and biological processes. Heat, light and electricity are the results of various reactions. Those properties are exploited to analyze reactions. There are different types of biosensors depending on the type of property used to analyze a reaction. Followings are the different types of biosensors

• Thermometric biosensors; heat based biosensors
• Piezoelectric biosensors; electricity based biosensors
• Optical biosensors; light based biosensors
• Amperometric biosensors; potential based biosensors
• Acoustic wave biosensors; sound based biosensors
• Hybrid biosensors; combination

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Piezoelectric biosensor

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The charge which accumulates on a solid material due to mechanical stain is defined as piezoelectricity. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure.

A device which can measure the piezoelectricity is known as piezoelectric sensors. This technology is used in physiology, physical chemistry, biology, etc. when it comes to biology; the piezoelectric sensor is renamed as piezoelectric biosensor.

The development of a piezoelectric biosensor based on nucleic acids interaction is presented focusing on the methodology for probe immobilization. This is a key step in any DNA biosensor development. Often, the detection limits and, in general, the analytical performances of the biosensor can be improved by optimizing the immobilization of the receptor on the transducer surface.

Followings are the uses and applications of piezoelectric biosensors

1. the fast electrone tratnsfer kinetics of Zinc oxide (ZnO) enables to use it as a biomimic membrane to immobilize and modify biomolecules
2. Piezoelectric systems can convert motion from the human body into electrical power

Thermometric biosensors

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Thermometry is a technology which is used to measure the temperature. There are various ways to measure the temperature such as optical, mechanical and electrical technique. When it comes to biological systems, thermometric biosensors are helpful to measure the temperature.

Thermometric biosensors are constructed by combining enzymes with temperature sensors. When the analyte is exposed to the enzyme, the heat of reaction of the enzyme is measured and is calibrated against the analyte concentration.

Uses and applications of Thermometric biosensors

1. to analyze the enzyme activities
2. used to analyze the activity of endocrine glands
3. to monitor the endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in the environment

Amperometric biosensors

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Amperometric biosensors are type of biosensors which exploit potential difference between two electrodes to analyze the process. These biosensors are also called potentiometric biosensors

Optical biosensors

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Optical biosensors are analytical devices comprising optical element and biological recognition molecule. Optical biosensors can be used to detect the light produced by chemical reactions.

Optical Biosensors provides the most comprehensive analysis of optical activities of different technologies. According to the optical configuration, optical sensors have classified into two modes. When light is reflected at an optical interface where there is a change of refractive index, there is a decay of energy from the point of reflection into the surrounding medium. This energy field which extends into the medium depends upon the medium in which the wave guide is dipped. The resultant changes of luminescence, absorption or fluorescence can hence be determined. When the glass surface of the biosensor is coated with a thin layer of metal (silver, gold), the intensity of the resonance angle changes depending on the concentration of the medium in which electrode is immersed. This phenomenon is called the surface plasma resonance (SPR).

Uses and applications of optical biosensors

1. screening of biological products
2. monitoring of protein purification
3. analysis of chemical and biological inhibitors

Gilbert’s syndrome & sgot sgpt test

Gilbert's syndrome is an autosomal dominant type hereditary syndrome. It is called GS and Gilbert-Meulengracht syndrome. Prevalence of the disease is about 5% of the population. Gilbert’s syndrome is the most common cause for increased bilirubin level in the blood.

Pathophysiology of Gilbert’s syndrome

Patients with gilbert,s syndrome have a reduced activity of enzyme called glucuronyltransferase, which catalyzes the bilirubin conjugation thereby it helps in bilirubin excretion. Because of the reduced activity of this enzyme, bilirubin excretion goes down and more and more bilirubin accumulated in blood. That is why patients become jaundiced (yellowish discoloration of mucous membranes). The enzyme is found in liver.

Gilbert’s syndrome & sgot sgpt test

Even though bilirubin level is high in gilbert’s syndrome, sgot and sgpt levels are normal. Therefore sgot and sgpt (AST & ALT) test is done to exclude other causes for elevated level of bilirubin.

Sign and symptoms of gilbert’s syndrome

1. mild jaundice (especially with exertion, stress, fasting, and infections)
2. Gilbert's syndrome is associated with severe diarrhea and neutropenia in patients who are treated with irinotecan
3. accelerated onset of neonatal jaundice

Treatment for gilbert’s syndrome

Usually it does not require any treatment as it is a self limiting condition.

Pethidine;side effects:interactions:dependence;addiction

Pethidine is derivative of opioid and it was the first synthetic opioid synthetized in 1932. other names used for pethidine are meperidine, Demerol, isonipecaine; lidol; pethanol; piridosal; Algil; Alodan; Centralgin; Dispadol; Dolantin; Mialgin, Petidin Dolargan, Dolestine; Dolosal; Dolsin;

Usually pethidine is used as an analgesic (a pain relief); mainly used for moderate to severe pain. It can be given orally or as an injection (intramuscular or intravenous).

Interactions of pethidine

If pethidine is prescribed with other drugs, it can result in severe effects. MAOIs (e.g., furazolidone, isocarboxazid, moclobemide, phenelzine, procarbazine, selegiline, tranylcypromine), antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and alcohol are the main class of drugs which interact with pethidine. Agitation, delirium, headache, convulsions, and/or hyperthermia are the common symptoms of interactions. It can also results deaths as well.

Liver diseases, kidney diseases, hypothyroidism, asthma and Addison's disease are contraindications for pethidine.

Side effects of pethidine

Nausea, vomiting, sedation, dizziness, diaphoresis, urinary retention and constipation are the common side effects of pethidine. Overdose of pethidine can result muscle flaccidity, respiratory depression, obtundedness, cold and clammy skin, hypotension and coma.

Addiction and dependence for pethidine

If a person is used to take pethidine regularly, he can develop addiction or dependence. Features of addiction or dependence are craving for pethidine, need higher does to achieve pain relief and development of withdrawal features such as tremors, vomiting if pethidine stopped. This is why pethidine is high on the list of common abusing drugs.

read more; pethidine for pain relief during labour

Cosmetics for skin discoloration

Skin discoloration is a stressful thing. Fortunately it is a treatable thing. There are many options available as treatment modalities for skin discoloration. The exact mode of treatment depends on the place of the skin discoloration and the underlying pathology. Among those treatments cosmetics play a big role in skin discoloration.

A cosmetic may be defined as any substance that is applied to the body for cleansing, beatifying, promoting attractiveness or altering the appearance.

Type of cosmetics for skin

Moisturizers, cleansers, soaps, make-up removers, rouges, foundations, tonics, perfumes, aftershaves, bath additives and sunscreens are mainly the cosmetics available for skin.

Sunscreens to prevent skin discoloration

Sunscreens absorb or reflect ultra-violet (UV) radiations. PABA, Eusolex 4360 and Parsol 1789 are some examples for absorbent agents. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are reflectant pigments. The sun protection factor (SPF) idicates the ratio of the reaction time to erythema when exposed to UV radiation for treated as compared to untreated skin. Thus using factor 10 cream means that it should take 10 times longer for erythema to develop when in the sun. Some sunscreens are waterproof.

Camouflage cosmetics for skin discoloration

These pigmented camouflage creams can be mixed to match the color of the patient’s skin and are useful for individuals who have vitiligo, disfiguring birth marks or scars.

Skin lightening cream for skin discoloration

These may contain mercury or hydroquinone, both of which can cause contact allergy or, paradoxically, pigmentation

Reactions to cosmetics used for skin discoloration

Side effects are comparatively rare when the vast usage of cosmetics for skin discoloration is considered. But 12% or more adults have had a reaction to a cosmetic. Irritation and allergic reactions are the common side effects of cosmetics.

Skin Discoloration on Face

Skin discoloration on face can be due to many causes. Irrespective if the cause of the skin discoloration on face, it is unarguably a stressful condition for everyone. Not like skin discoloration of other parts of the body, facial discoloration is distinctly visible. Formation of dark colored patches on the upper layer of the facial skin is considered as skin discoloration on face. Fortunately skin discoloration on face is a completely treatable condition.

Causes for skin discoloration on face

• Exposure to sun
• Pregnancy
• Age related changes
• Birth control pills

Treatment available for skin discoloration on face

• Sun screen
• Laser therapy
• Butter milk
• Lemon juice

Electrochemical Biosensors

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An electrochemical biosensor is a self-contained integrated device, which is capable of providing specific quantitative or semi-quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element (biochemical receptor) which is retained in direct spatial contact with an electrochemical transduction element.

Most important aspect of the biological and medical applications is the quantification of the process. But problem is the conversion of the biological information into an electronic signal. Electrochemical biosensors play a major role in this process.

Uses of Electrochemical Biosensors

1. Researches are being done to evaluate the value of Electrochemical Biosensors in early diagnosis of cancers.
2. Electrochemical Biosensors may help to measure the level of pesticides in food items.
3. electrochemical DNA biosensors with molecular diagnostic capabilities

acute epiglottitis

It is an airway emergency seen mainly in the age group of 2-6 years. This grave illness is most commonly caused by H.influenzae and carries a high risk of complete obstruction of the upper airway. Incidence can be reduced by over 97% with proper immunization of infants with Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccination.

Symptoms of acute epiglottitis

Illness starts as a sore throat and rapidly progresses within hours to a very toxic level evidenced by high fever, irritability and dyspnoea. Dysphagia and drooling of saliva may be observed by the parents. The child prefers to sit forward with open mouth and extended neck.

Clinical features of acute epiglottitis

Usually the child is ill and has a characteristic posture, muffled voice, intercostal and subcostal recessions. Cyanosis and deteriorating level of consciousness are precursors of impending respiratory arrest.

Classification of bacterial sinusitis

Definition

Sinusitis is infectious or non infectious inflammation of one or more sinuses. The inflammation can be caused by infectious (bacterial, viral, fungal) or non infectious (allergic) triggers.

Classification of bacterial sinusitis

1. Acute bacterial sinusitis;

Infection lasts less than four weeks and symptoms resolve completely with treatment (duration range 10-30 days)1

2. Subacute bacterial sinusitis

Infection lasting four to twelve weeks yet resolves completely with treatment.

3. Recurrent acute bacterial sinusitis

Episodes last less than four weeks and are separated by intervals of at least ten days during which the patient is totally free of symptoms.

4. Chronic bacterial sinusitis

Symptoms last more than twelve weeks with or without