Serum albumin test

Serum albumin test is a blood test and it is done to measure the albumin level in the blood. Serum albumin test is one of the important liver function tests (LFTs). It indicates the liver’s functional state.

Serum albumin is a protein and it is the most abundant protein found in human plasma. Serum albumin is essential to maintain the osmotic and oncotic pressure of the plasma. Albumin is also acting as a carrier molecule.

Normal serum albumin level

The normal range is 3.4 - 5.4 g/dL.

Following conditions can lead to low level of serum albumin

• Ascites
• Burns (extensive)
• Glomerulonephritis
• Liver disease (hepatitis, cirrhosis, or hepatocellular necrosis)
• Malabsorption syndromes (Crohn's disease, sprue, or Whipple's disease)
• Malnutrition
• Nephrotic syndrome

Liver function tests LFTs

Liver function tests or LFTs are a group of blood tests. These tests are done to assess the state of the liver. Liver function tests or LFTs include set of liver enzymes. Functionality of the liver, integrity of the liver cells and state of the biliary tract are assessed by the liver function tests (LFTs). Followings are the main components of liver function tests (LFTs)

1. Serum albumin
2. Alanine transaminase (ALT or SGPT)
3. Aspartate transaminase (AST or SGOT)
4. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
5. Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT)
6. Bilirubin

Read more

1. ALT ENZYME
2. SGPT ENZYME
3. AST ENZYME
4. SGOT ENZYME
5. AST/ALT BLOOD TEST
6. SGOT/SGPT ENZYME TEST
7. SGOT/SGPT BLOOD TEST
8. LIVER DISEASE AND SGOT/SGPT TEST
9. LIVER DISEASES AND SGOT/SGPT TEST PATTERN
10. GILBERT'S SYNDROME AND SGOT/SGPT TEST

Tramadol (dose, side effects, interactions, abuse & dependence)

Tramadol is a strong pain relieving agent (analgesic). It belongs to the opioid drug class. It is a centrally acting analgesic which can be used for moderate to severe pain. It is a synthetic opioid. It was developed in 1970 by the pharmaceutical company Grünenthal GmbH.

Uses of Tramadol

Tramadol is used to treat moderate to severe pain such as neuralgias. Tramadol could be used to reduce the symptoms of depression, anxiety, and phobias as well. But this application of Tramadol is controversial. Tramadol should not be used as a replacement therapy for opioid addiction. Followings are some uses of Tramadol but those are not recommended; diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, fibromyalgia, restless legs syndrome, migraine headache, obsessive-compulsive disorder and premature ejaculation.

Preparation of Tramadol

Tramadol is available as Tramadol hydrochloride. Followings are the common Tramadol preparations;

1. capsules (regular and extended release)
2. tablets (regular, extended release, chewable, low-residue and/or uncoated tablets that can be taken by the sublingual and buccal routes)
3. suppositories
4. effervescent tablets and powders
5. ampules of sterile solution for SC, IM, and IV injection
6. preservative-free solutions for injection by the various spinal routes (epidural, intrathecal, caudal, and others)
7. powders for compounding
8. liquids both with and without alcohol for oral and sub-lingual administration, available in regular phials and bottles, dropper bottles, bottles with a pump similar to those used with liquid soap and phials with droppers built into the cap
9. tablets and capsules containing (acetaminophen/APAP), aspirin and other agents.

Side effects of Tramadol

Common side effects of Tramadol are nausea, vomiting, sweating and constipation, drowsiness, uncontrollable nervous tremors, muscle contracture, and 'thrashing' in bed, tonic-clonic seizures.

Drug interactions of Tramadol

Tramadol can reduce the seizure threshold therefore one should be careful when taking Tramadol with SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants because those drugs can further reduce the seizure threshold. Tramadol can inhibit the liver enzyme activity therefore concomitant use of anticoagulants like warfarin should be done with utmost care.

Abuse and dependency for Tramadol

Long term use of Tramadol can lead to physical dependence. It means that you have to take a higher dose to have a good pain relieving effect. So sudden cessation of Tramadol can result withdrawal symptoms like anxiety, depression, anguish, severe mood swings, aggressiveness, brain "zaps", electric-shock-like sensations throughout the body, paresthesias, sweating, palpitations, restless legs syndrome, sneezing, insomnia, tremors, and headache.

Genital warts (signs & symptoms, causes, treatment, prevention)

Genital warts are a leading sexually transmitted disease (STD). Other names given for genital warts are Condylomata acuminata, venereal warts, anal warts and anogenital warts. This is a highly contagious condition.

Transmission of genital warts

As this is a sexually transmitted disease, the primary mode of transmission is the unprotected sex. It is spread through direct skin-to-skin contact. Therefore any form of sexual act such as oral sex, anal sex and vulvo-vaginal (genital) sex can spread the infection. Both heterosexual and homosexuals are at risk. Homosexual males are at higher risk than that of other forms of sex.

If a pregnant woman is having genital warts, child can acquire the infection during child birth. Therefore genital wart during pregnancy is also contributing to the spread of genital warts but this is insignificant when it compares with transmission with sex. Mother to baby transmission is known as vertical transmission.

Causes for genital warts

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the sole cause for genital warts. There are hundreds of human papillomavirus (HPV) strains; among those strains 6, 11, 30, 42, 43, 44, 45, 51, 52 and 54 of HPV are the strains which cause genital warts. 90% of genital warts are caused by strain 6 and 11.

Sign and symptoms of genital warts

Obviously the commonest feature is the presence of warts or warty lesions in and around the genital areas. In women genital warts can be found on the outside and inside of the vagina, on the opening (cervix) to the womb (uterus), or around (or inside) the anus whereas in men they can be found on the tip of the penis, the shaft of the penis, on the scrotum, or around (or inside) the anus. Genital warts can also be found in mouth and throat. This is particularly found in men and women who practice oral sex. These warts occur in clusters.

Management or treatment for genital warts

Unfortunately there is nor cure for genital warts caused by HPV. Therefore prevention is the cure. But there are many ways of treating visible warts, by which might reduce the infectivity. Genital warts may disappear even without treatment. Followings are the some options available;

1. 0.15% – 0.5% podophyllotoxin (also called podofilox) solution
2. Imiquimod (Aldara) is a topical immune response cream, applied to the affected area
3. Liquid nitrogen cryosurgery is safe during pregnancy.
4. Interferon

Prevention of genital warts

Best mode of prevention is the practice of safe sex. This involves avoidance of unprotected sex and stick to a single partner. Men should wear a condom to prevent spread. There is vaccine which is not therapeutic. It should be used prior to the exposure.

Cancer IV classification

Cancer is usually classified according to the tissue from which the cancerous cells originate, as well as the normal cell type they most resemble. Definitive diagnosis usually requires the histological examination of a tissue biopsy specimen by a pathologist, although the initial indication of malignancy can be symptoms or radiographic imaging abnormalities. Most cancers can be treated and some cured, depending on the specific type, location, and stages. Prognosis in many cases is most influenced but the staging of the disease, although histological grading and molecular markers are often useful in establishing prognosis, as well as determining individual treatments. Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. As research develops, treatments are becoming more specific for different verities of cancers. There has been significant progress in the development of drugs that target specific, detectable molecular abnormalities in certain, and which minimize damage to normal cells.

Cancer III: Cancer Promoting oncogenes

Genetic abnormalities may promote malignant behavior in cells through their effects on two general classes of genes. Cancer – Promoting oncogenes are often activated in cancer cells, giving those cells new properties, such as hyperactive growth and division, protection against programmed cell death, loss of respect for normal tissue boundaries, and the ability to become established in diverse tissue environments. Tumor Suppressor Genes are often inactivated in cancers cells, resulting in the loss of normal functions in those cells, such as accurate DNA replication, control over the cell cycle, orientation and adhesion within tissues, and interaction with protective cells of the immune system.

Cancer II

Nearly all cancers are known to be caused by the accumulation of abnormalities in the genetic material of the transformed cells. These abnormalities may be due to the effect of environmental agents, or carcinogens, such as tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents. Other cancer – promoting genetic abnormalities may be randomly acquired through errors in DNA replication, or may be inherited and thus present in all cells from birth. Complex interactions between carcinogens and the host genome may partially explain why only some patients get cancer after exposure to a known carcinogen. New aspect of the genetics of cancer pathogenesis, such as DNA methylation, and micro RNAs are increasingly being recognized as important.

Cancer I

Cancer is a disease characterized by a population of cells that grow and divide without respect to normal limits, and that invade in to adjacent tissues, or spread to distant anatomic sites through a process called metastasis. These life – threatening properties of cancer are referred to as malignant, and differentiate cancers from benign tumors , which are self – limited in their growth and do not invade or metastasize. Cancer may affect people at all ages, but risk for the more common verities tend to increase with age. It is one of the principal causes of death in developed countries.

what is a Prokaryotic Cell?

Prokaryotic cells are simpler in structure when compared to eukaryotic cells. They contain non-membranous organelles, lack a cell nucleus and have a simplistic genome:only one circular chromosome of limited size .therefore Prokaryotic cell division a process known as binary fission is fast .the chromosomes is duplicated prior to division .the two copies of the chromosome attach to opposing sides of the cellular membrane. Cytokinesis, the physical separation of the cell, occurs immediately